Skeleton
Skeleton includes bones and cartilages. It forms the main supporting framework of the body, and is primarily designed for a more effective production of movements by the attached muscles.
BONES
Synonyms
1. Os (L)
2.Osteon (G)
Compare with the terms, osteology, ossification, osteomyelitis, osteomalacia, osteoma, etc
Definition
Bone is one-third connective tissue. It is impregnated with calcium salts which constitute two-thirds part. The inorganic calcium salts (mainly calcium phosphate, partly calcium carbonate, and traces of other salts) make it hard and rigid, which can afford resistance to compressive forces of weight-bearing and impact forces of jumping. The organic connective tissue (collagen fibres) makes it tough and resilient (flexible), which can afford resistance to tensile forces. In strength, bone is comparable to iron and steel.
Despite its hardness and high calcium content the bone is very much a living tissue. It is highly vascular, with a constant turn-over of its calcium content. It shows a characteristic pattern of growth. It is subjected to disease and heals after a fracture. It has greater regenerative power than any other tissue of the body, except blood. It can mould itself according to changes in stress and strain it bears. It shows disuse atrophy and overuse hypertrophy.
B. Developmental Classification
1. • Membrane (dermal) bones ossify in membrane (intramembranous or mesenchymal ossification), and are thus derived from mesenchymal condensations. Examples: bones of the vault of skull and facial bones.
• Cartilaginous bones ossify in cartilage (intracartilaginous or endochondral ossification), and are thus derived from preformed cartilaginous models. Examples: bones of limbs, vertebral column and thoracic cage.
• Membrano-cartilaginous bones ossify partly in membrane and partly in cartilage. Examples: clavicle, mandible, occipital, temporal, sphenoid
BONES
Synonyms
1. Os (L)
2.Osteon (G)
Compare with the terms, osteology, ossification, osteomyelitis, osteomalacia, osteoma, etc
Definition
Bone is one-third connective tissue. It is impregnated with calcium salts which constitute two-thirds part. The inorganic calcium salts (mainly calcium phosphate, partly calcium carbonate, and traces of other salts) make it hard and rigid, which can afford resistance to compressive forces of weight-bearing and impact forces of jumping. The organic connective tissue (collagen fibres) makes it tough and resilient (flexible), which can afford resistance to tensile forces. In strength, bone is comparable to iron and steel.
Despite its hardness and high calcium content the bone is very much a living tissue. It is highly vascular, with a constant turn-over of its calcium content. It shows a characteristic pattern of growth. It is subjected to disease and heals after a fracture. It has greater regenerative power than any other tissue of the body, except blood. It can mould itself according to changes in stress and strain it bears. It shows disuse atrophy and overuse hypertrophy.
Functions
1. Bones give shape and support to the body, and resist any forms of stress.
2. These provide surface for the attachment of muscles, tendons, ligaments, etc.
3. These serve as levers for muscular actions.
4. The skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage protect brain, spinal cord and thoracic viscera, respectively.
5. Bone marrow manufactures blood cells.
6. Bones store 97% of the body calcium and phosphorus.
7. Bone marrow contains reticuloendothelial cells which are phagocytic in nature and take part in immune responses of the body.
8. The larger paranasal air sinuses affect the timber of the voice.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
A. According to shape
1. Long bones: Each long bone has an elongated shaft (diaphysis) and two expanded ends (epiphyses) which are smooth and articular. The shaft typically has 3 surfaces separated by 3 borders, a central medullary cavity, and a nutrient foramen directed away from the growing end. Examples: (a) typical long bones like humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula; (b) miniature long bones have only one epiphysis like metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges; and (c) modified long bones have no medullary cavity like clavicle.
2. Short bones: Their shape is usually cuboid, cuneiform, trapezoid, or scaphoid. Examples: tarsal and carpal bones .
3. Flat bones resemble shallow plates and form boundaries of certain body cavities. Examples: bones in the vault of the skull, ribs, sternum and scapula .
4. Irregular bones: Examples: vertebra, hip bone, and bones in the base of the skull .
5. Pneumatic bones: Certain irregular bones contain large air spaces lined by epithelium Examples: maxilla, sphenoid, ethmoid, etc. They make the skull light in weight, help in resonance of voice, and act as air conditioning chambers for the inspired air .
6. Sesamoid bones: These are bony nodules found embedded in the tendons or joint capsules. They have no periosteum and ossify after birth. They are related to an articular or nonarticular bony surface, and the surfaces of contact are covered with hyaline cartilage and lubricated by a bursa or synovial membrane. Examples: patella, pisiform, fabella, etc. Functions of the sesamoid bones are: (a) to resist pressure; (b) to minimise friction; (c) to alter the direction of pull of the muscle; and (d) to maintain the local circulation.
7. Accessory (supernumerary) bones are not always present. These may occur as ununited epiphyses developed from extra centres of ossification. Examples: sutural bones, os trigonum (lateral tubercle of talus), os vesalianum (tuberosity of 5th metatarsal), etc. In medicolegal practice, accessory bones may be mistaken for fractures. However, these are often bilateral, and have smooth surfaces without any callus.
8. Heterotopic bones: Bones sometimes develop in soft tissues. Horse riders develop bones in adductor muscles (rider's bones).
B. Developmental Classification
1. • Membrane (dermal) bones ossify in membrane (intramembranous or mesenchymal ossification), and are thus derived from mesenchymal condensations. Examples: bones of the vault of skull and facial bones.
• Cartilaginous bones ossify in cartilage (intracartilaginous or endochondral ossification), and are thus derived from preformed cartilaginous models. Examples: bones of limbs, vertebral column and thoracic cage.
• Membrano-cartilaginous bones ossify partly in membrane and partly in cartilage. Examples: clavicle, mandible, occipital, temporal, sphenoid
2. • Somatic bones: Most of the bones are somatic.
• Visceral bones: These develop from pharyngeal arches. Examples are hyoid bones, part of mandible and ear ossicles.
C. Regional Classification
1. Axial skeleton includes skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
2. Appendicular skeleton includes bones of the limbs.
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